
Public understanding of science: lessons from the UK experience
3 December 2001 | EN
![]() House of Lords | Session 1999-2000 Publications on the internet Science and Technology Committee Publications |
| Science and Technology - Third Report |

![]() House of Lords | Session 1999-2000 Publications on the internet Science and Technology Committee Publications |
| Science and Technology - Third Report |

Paper
Conceptual Metaphor Meets Conceptual Change
Tamer G. Amin
American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
Address of Corresponding Author
Human Development 2009;52:165-197 (DOI: 10.1159/000213891)
This paper argues that the metaphorical representation of concepts and the appropriation of language-based construals can be hypothesized as additional sources of conceptual change alongside those previously proposed. Analyses of construals implicit in the lay and scientific use of the noun energy from the perspective of the theory of conceptual metaphor are summarized. The experientially grounded metaphorical construals identified in both uses help conceptualize the shift from the concrete, naïve to the abstract, scientific understanding of energy. The case of the concept of energy motivates the more general hypothesis that an important part of learning a highly abstract (even mathematical) concept is the appropriation of experientially grounded metaphorical construals implicit in scientific discourse. Pedagogical implications of this proposal are discussed.
Copyright © 2009 S. Karger AG, Basel

+Author Affiliations
“Why should I struggle through hundreds of pages of fabrication to reach half a dozen very little truths? …Words are for truth. For facts. Not fiction.”—Conchis in The Magus, John Fowles.1
Is there a role for fiction in explorations of ethics? Are words, as Conchis says, only for truth, for facts? Or is it perhaps the case that words can be used to help us reach a deeper truth—through fiction? This month the Journal of Medical Ethics features a form of publication rarely found in the pages of scholarly journals: the first instalment of a fictional “bioethics soap opera” designed to offer a somewhat different exploration of the issues that are the subject of the journal’s usual offerings.
The subject matter of bioethical discussions often borders on the territory of speculative or science fiction. Human cloning, animal–human hybrids and genetic engineering have all found a place in fictional as well as bioethical literature. Similarly, creatures and concepts from science fiction populate bioethical debate, albeit sometimes as a form of metaphorical shorthand for an underlying argument. One such example is that of Frankenstein’s monster, often invoked to illustrate the dangers of “playing God”, the moral sin of humankind daring to reach beyond our natural limitations (as indicated, indeed, by the subtitle of the novel Frankenstein: a modern Prometheus)—a form of argument that still rears its head in bioethical commentaries almost 200 years later. Another is Aldous Huxley’s Brave new world, a “cautionary tale” about human cloning, seemingly cited in perpetuity whenever the cloning debate arises.2 But is there more to this relationship than metaphor?
The usefulness of fiction and imagination in bioethical discourse is evident when one considers that hypothetical scenarios, thought experiments and case studies are also a form of fiction.

The first written reference to this appears in the March 1958 issue of Venture, where Sturgeon wrote: “I repeat Sturgeon’s Revelation, which was wrung out of me after twenty years of wearying defense of science fiction against attacks of people who used the worst examples of the field for ammunition, and whose conclusion was that ninety percent of SF is crud”. [1] Using the same standards that categorize 90% of science fiction as trash, crud, or crap, it can be argued that 90% of film, literature, consumer goods, etc. are crap. In other words, the claim (or fact) that 90% of science fiction is crap is ultimately uninformative, because science fiction conforms to the same trends of quality as all other art forms do.
According to Philip Klass (William Tenn), Sturgeon made this remark in about 1951, at a talk at NYU at which Tenn was present. [4]. The term was subsequently popularized at a session of the World Science Fiction Convention in Philadelphia, held over the Labor Day weekend of 1953.[5][6]
This formulation of Sturgeon’s Law may be regarded as an instance of the Pareto principle.
Bom, acho que a lei de Sturgeon refuta qualquer argumentação puntual de Takata, ou seja, citar algum filme ou livro como exemplo de FC deseducativa. O que temos que pensar é em termos amplos, sociológicos, estatísticos. Foi por isso que eu propus aquela experiência de pensamento: "Elimine toda a FC do século XX e começo do XIX e estime as consequências para para a a compreensão pública e a educação científica. Estaríamos melhor ou pior?"
É claro que se Takata responder: "OK, mas se você eliminar os 90% de FC lixo, a compreensão pública da ciência estaria melhor". Eu concordo inteiramente, mas isso é uma conclusão trivial, não é mesmo?
O ponto é que Takata e eu estamos discutindo sobre níveis diferentes de compreensão científica: ele está preocupado com a compreensão sobre o que é exatamente um gene ou um clone, segundo a melhor compreensão dos biólogos. Eu estou preocupado com um conhecimento "anterior", "vocabular", proto-conceitual: ou seja, primeiro o público precisa saber que existem coisas chamadas "gene" e "clone" e ter uma idéia mínima (e portanto necessariamente não acurada) à que se referem.
Para atingir esse objetivo, a novela "O Clone" foi o suficiente. Ou seja, uma pessoa que assistiu à novela, e que nunca tinha ouvido falar em clone (afinal, ela não é leitora de FC e não teria aproveitado o ótimo Terra Imperial de Arthur C. Clark, sugerido pelo Portal de Ensino de Ciências do IF-USP e onde as questões éticas da clonagem humana são tratadas de forma profunda em plena década de 70), poderá ser atraía agora por uma reportagem de jornal, uma revista ou um documentário de DV, porque tem a mínima informação sobre o que se trata: a pessoa saberia que é um tema de biologia e não de física, tema ver com genes e DNA (outras palavras popularizadas na novela), relacionado à produção de "cópias de organismos" - o que não é verdade mas é uma primeira aproximação - e tudo em ciência parte de primeiras aproximações...
Ou seja, segundo a tese de Takata, a novela "O Clone" fez um malefício à educação científica brasileira e à popularização da ciência. Segundo minha avaliação, fez um benefício, por chamar a atenção para um assunto novo, por disseminar de forma aproximada porém em amplas camadas da população um primeiro jargão biológico (DNA, genes, clones) necessário para que as pessoas possam pelo menos conversar ou se interessar sobre o assunto. A prova de que essa difusão científica ocorreu é o fato de que o termo foi absorvido pela linguagem cotidiana, por exemplo, quando falamos em "clonar cartão de crédito".
Então eu posso propor um experimento de pensamento mais limitado para ser executado:
Eliminemos a novela "O Clone" da história da TV brasileira. Isso teria sido benéfico, indiferente ou detrimental para a compreensão científica da população?
The official choir of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (better known by its French acronym Cern) is to record a song dedicated to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The LHC is the vast physics experiment built in a 27km-long underground tunnel, which runs in a circle under the French-Swiss border. The ditty written by clinical psychologist Danuta Orlowska has been set to the tune of the Hippopotamus song by Flanders and Swann and its chorus celebrates the Higgs boson - a sub-atomic particle that the LHC is designed to detect: "Higgs, Higgs glorious Higgs," the tune goes, "the theory told them these thingamijigs, were so fundamental." But this isn't Cern's first ode to particle physics. Staff members once wrote a rap song that was praised for its scientific accuracy - if little else. "You see particles flying, in jets they spray. But you notice there ain't nothin', goin' the other way," they rap. "You say: 'My law has just been violated - it don't make sense! There's gotta be another particle to make this balance'." Buzz Aldrin, the second man to set foot on the Moon, also released a rap song this year. "Rocket Experience", recorded with some help from rap artist Snoop Dogg, commemorated the 40th anniversary of the first manned mission to land on the Moon. Crash landing? In it, Buzz intones, "I am the space man", adding: "It's time to venture far, let's take a trip to Mars. Our destiny is to the stars." The song was intended to convey the excitement of the Apollo era to a younger generation. But Andrew Harrison, associate editor of music magazine Word, is doubtful: "I don't think we can call that a giant leap for hip-hop," he told BBC News. But he understands why Buzz and others turn to music in an attempt to convey the wonder of science. "Scientists can feel a little unappreciated, in that there's this incredible stuff that they're discovering that is difficult to bring to popular attention. But what it does prove is that music is difficult," says Mr Harrison. There are even songs dedicated to palaeontological discoveries. Jonathan Mann wrote a song about the discovery of a 4.4 million-year-old human-like creature called Ardipithecus ramidus, which might be a human ancestor. The chorus goes: "Oh! Ardipithecus ramidus, Ardipithecus ramidus, She's related to all of us!" Scientists are not just using music to inform the public, but also - in time-honoured fashion - to campaign. 'Don't take our dish' The tune "Don't go messing with our Telescope" was released last year by The Astronomers to fight the closure of the famous Jodrell Bank Telescope in Cheshire, UK. "And every day we live in hope, don't go messing with our telescope, don't take our dish, you'll leave a black hole," the verse implores. A composition in an advert by Bio-Rad Laboratories set what was regarded as a high water mark in science music. The video features a well-produced parody of "We are the World" with cameos from Willy Nelson, Bob Dylan and Bee Gees sound-alikes. It is dedicated to a technique - called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) - which enables researchers to make millions of copies of short sequences of genetic material. It has transformed molecular biology. So, argue the scientists, why not celebrate science with the same gusto as one might celebrate sport in a football song? "PCR when you need to detect mutation (detect mutation), PCR when you need to recombine (recombine), PCR when you need to find out who the daddy is (who's your daddy?), PCR when you need to solve a crime (solve a crime)," goes the refrain. | ||

Mas chamo a atenção que a frase "divulgação/difusão ruim é pior do que divulgação/difusão alguma" não se refere a isso. Ela se refere à proposta de usar esses produtos culturais como forma de divulgação/difusão per se: "Música, mangás, humor, stand-up comedy são mídias populares entre os jovens que recebem pouca (nenhuma?) atenção em termos de torná-las mídias de divulgação científica. Talvez o campo da DV sofra da doença de textolatria, talvez por causa de nossa papirolatria como cientistas. No máximo, usamos formatos de alta-cultura tipo museus e exposições de fotografia científica", "é um trabalho anterior necessário ao ato de divulgação e educação científica (que correspondem a outros momentos de um processo)." (aqui, negritos meus).
O uso pedagógico de filmes é o próprio ato de educação científica. Se se vai exibir filmes em sala não há uma necessidade exposição anterior deles.
Aliás, dado psicológico que se constata nos estudos que citei nas postagens anteriores: professores não devem exibir os filmes - especialmente os ruins - para comentar depois, vai ter mais trabalho... Devem apresentar a aula antes, enfatizar as armadilhas e depois exibir os filmes, fazendo os alunos buscarem os erros. Podem ainda intercalar trechos - com comentários imediatos (e ainda assim é arriscado).
Note-se que há uma diferença entre usar filmes como recursos didáticos - como contraexemplos, digamos - e produzir tais filmes (ou outros produtos culturais) como uma estratégia de difusão/divulgação.
Fazer limonada dado que lhes atiraram limões é diferente de provocar guerras de limões para ter suco depois.
Dado que 99% da Ficção Científica é lixo, vamos rodar de novo o tape da história do século XX (fazendo uma simulação) e eliminar completamente a FC da indústria cultural. Na sua opinião, isso teria produzido uma população mais educada cientificamente ou menos educada? A má difusão de conceitos científicos realmente é pior que difusão nenhuma?
PS: Acho que isso poderia ser pesquisado de forma mais objetiva entrevistando-se cientistas atuantes e perguntando qual o papel que a FC teve (se teve algum) na sua vocação e formação científica. Eu acredito que, para muitos, o esquema FC -> DC -> EC irá se manifestar, ou seja, a FC atuou como mediador anterior ao processo de divulgação/educação científica.

ABSTRACT
Background The first case of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in China was documented on May 10. Subsequently, persons with suspected cases of infection and contacts of those with suspected infection were tested. Persons in whom infection was confirmed were hospitalized and quarantined, and some of them were closely observed for the purpose of investigating the nature and duration of the disease.
Methods During May and June 2009, we observed 426 persons infected with the 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus who were quarantined in 61 hospitals in 20 provinces. Real-time reverse-transcriptase–polymerase-chain-reaction (RT-PCR) testing was used to confirm infection, the clinical features of the disease were closely monitored, and 254 patients were treated with oseltamivir within 48 hours after the onset of disease.
Results The mean age of the 426 patients was 23.4 years, and 53.8% were male. The diagnosis was made at ports of entry (in 32.9% of the patients), during quarantine (20.2%), and in the hospital (46.9%). The median incubation period of the virus was 2 days (range, 1 to 7). The most common symptoms were fever (in 67.4% of the patients) and cough (69.5%). The incidence of diarrhea was 2.8%, and the incidence of nausea and vomiting was 1.9%. Lymphopenia, which was common in both adults (68.1%) and children (92.3%), typically occurred on day 2 (range, 1 to 3) and resolved by day 7 (range, 6 to 9). Hypokalemia was observed in 25.4% of the patients. Duration of fever was typically 3 days (range, 1 to 11). The median length of time during which patients had positive real-time RT-PCR test results was 6 days (range, 1 to 17). Independent risk factors for prolonged real-time RT-PCR positivity included an age of less than 14 years, male sex, and a delay from the onset of symptoms to treatment with oseltamivir of more than 48 hours.
Conclusions Surveillance of the 2009 H1N1 virus in China shows that the majority of those infected have a mild illness. The typical period during which the virus can be detected with the use of real-time RT-PCR is 6 days (whether or not fever is present). The duration of infection may be shortened if oseltamivir is administered.

